More than three years have passed since EU leaders adopted a grandly named “global strategy” for foreign and security policy. It pulled no punches about Europe’s vulnerability to internal and external threats, observing: “We live in times of existential crisis, within and beyond the European Union.” The June 2016 document identified “strategic autonomy” as a core EU goal. It promised an integrated foreign and security policy, based on “military capabilities and antiterrorism as much as on job opportunities, inclusive societies and human rights”.

The EU’s ambition for global autonomy remains intact. But it is hard to discern much actual progress. Ursula von der Leyen, the European Commission president, promises to lead a “geopolitical” executive, unafraid to pursue EU interests in a manner as hard-nosed as China, Russia and the US. Josep Borrell, the EU’s foreign policy chief, says that Europeans must “learn to use the language of power”. Behind these brave words, it is far from clear that national capitals agree on what strategic autonomy should mean in practice.

In the eyes of Emmanuel Macron, France’s president, it should mean greater independence from Washington. He says Nato is “ brain-dead”, the US security commitment to Europe is in doubt and the EU should open a constructive dialogue with Moscow.